L.H. Immers and B.J. de Wilde

Possibilities for Bicycle Transport in Developing Countries

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THE LOW-COST TRANSPORT CONCEPT

Bicycles as transporters of heavy have a long history. Already used in the South-African Boer war (1899), they have proved to be very successful support vehicles. Models capable of moving loads up to 250 kg were effectively used by the Vietnamese in their war with France. In fact, the defeat of the French at Dien Bien Phu was largely due to these bicycles that enabled the Vietnamese to transport over 70 tons of supplies over a distance of 500-700 km daily (28). A related design based on the common bicycle was developed for Frelimo in Mozambique and could take loads of 200 kg and more (29). Nowadays bicycles and tricicycles flock the streets of Vietnamese cities.

In China the bicycle is the most common transport vehicle. With some 150 million bicycle, at present the average density is about 150 bicycles per 1,000 persons annual production exceeds 25 million bicycles (30). In major cities like Guangzhou, Xian and Chengdu 4,000 - 7,000 bicycles per direction were counted in peak hour traffic studies.

The bicycle is as much a part of India, as the curry meal. In the city of Agra (750,000 inhabitants), for instance public transit is taken care of by its 30,000 cycle-rickshaw drivers. The transport system not only provides access to jobs it is a major employer itself!

The impact of the informal transport sector on society is clearly illustrated by evidence from Indonesia. In 1971 there were 100,000 becaks (Indonesian Tricycles) in Jakarta. Government restrictions in favor of motorized transport transport reduced this number to less than 40,000 of which more than 10,000 were illegal in 1981 (note: Indonesia is an OPEC Country). Consequently unemployment went up considerably and the queues in the streets are longer than ever before (33, 34).

What makes bicycles (and tricycles) so popular in these Asian Countries? Bicycles are relatively cheap and easy to use and maintain and require a minimum of natural resources for production. Furthermore bicycles do not present any environmental hazards, an interesting aspect as environmental awareness in Asian countries is growing.

With the motorized modes door-to-door journeys are nor complicated by walking to and from car parks and bus stops and there is no waiting time. Also traffic congestion affects a cyclist's speed less than it affects motorists. No wonder then that the bicycle is very popular means of urban transport not only in Asian countries where car densities are low but also in highly developed European countries like Denmark and The Netherlands (800 bicycles per 1,000 persons).

Apart from characteristics that appeal to the individual each transport mode requires facilities to accommodate it which society has to provide at some kind of "cost". Both users' costs and costs to society as well as particular disadvantages (vulnerability of cyclists, theft, etc.) have to be evaluated before determining the suitability of the bicycle.

In rural areas, bicycle infrastructure is of minor importance as emphasis is on high payloads that require a person to walk next to his bicycle and push it rather than actually ride it. Stabilized tracks or even fairly smooth earthen paths will do here. Conversely, in urban areas where a high mobility is of the first order, high quality infrastructure is called for.

The bicycle makes only a small demand on valuable urban space; parking and other requirements are negligible compared with motorized traffic. Bicycle tracks are relatively inexpensive to build and have a very high level of efficiency. At speeds of about 12 km per hour, the total hourly output of travel produced by bicycle tracks can reach 3,600 per foot width. This output easily exceeds that of automobiles, equals that of buses and is nearly twice the rate for pedestrians on footpaths (35).

As already, mentioned, energy conservation draws a lot of political attention. In 1979 President Nyerere publicly stated: "People must learn to use their bicycles instead of depending on oil-consuming vehicles" (36) When comparing the bicycle to other modes in the amount of energy used per person per kilometer, the results shown in Table 3 are produced (37). Although these data depend on factors such as occupancy rate. The bicycle is by far the most energy-efficient means of transport. Not only is the amount of energy consumed important, so is the kind of energy. While motorized vehicles depend upon fossil fuels. The bicycle uses man's own source of energy in so doing it is more than twice as efficient as walking: a very important saving on human energy in a country where the daily calorie supply equals only 89 per cent of the total requirement (38).

Ideal cycling conditions include relatively flat terrain and favorable climatic conditions. Although criteria with respect to these factors can be established. their relevance should not be overstressed.

The pedestrian will have more eye for energy efficiency of the bicycle than for possible adverse topographical and climatic conditions with which he has to cope anyway.

TABLE 3: Amount of energy used per passenger kilometer

Up to 1979 bicycles were imported, mainly from he UK, India and China. In 1979 The National Bicycles Company (NABICO) started home production and all import licences were revoked shortly afterwards. NABICO has never been able to reach its target of 150,000 bicycles annually. In fact, due to operational - and most of all managerial - problems NABICO had to close down temporarily in 1982.

Figure 6 relates the prices of bicycles throughout the years to the corresponding per capita incomes. Until 1978, the retail price of a bicycle was roughly equal to half the annual per capita income. After home production was taken up, a spectacular rise in both ex-factory and retail price occurred. In 1982 the price of a bicycle was about the same as the per capita income.

The type of bicycle which predominates in Tanzania is modeled from designs produced in Western countries thirty to fourty years ago. Although more robust than modern design, it is not meant for arduous use. Poor welding techniques, low quality steel lubing and poorly designed bottom brackets present serious problems.

Repair of bicycles is carried out by "fundis," craftsmen with primitive repair facilities. The non-availability of spare parts is another problem: tires and tubes, etc, are extremely difficult to obtain. Consequently, the black market prices for these items have increased considerably, making it very difficult to adequately maintain one's bicycle.

The bicycle is still considered by many to be an "inferior" means of transport, particularly, when compared with a car. This is strongly reflected in the attitude of motorists towards cyclists.

Thus a very strong sense of relative unsafety exists, which discourages many cyclists, especially in the major urban areas. In Dar es Salaam 75 per cent of the non-bicycle owners interviewed reported that they would not buy a bicycle unless safety precautions were improved. For the same reason 13 per cent of the bicycle owners did not ride their bicycles (39).

FIGURE 6: Cost/income relation.

Results from a survey among bicyclists in seven Tanzanian towns 1401 indicate that the "average" urban cyclist is a 30-year-old male with a monthly net income of ±$90 (well above the minimum wage of $60} who uses his bicycle mainly for work-related purposes. His traveling radius is about 7 km.

As in most African countries, men make use of the few bicycles available while women, who do the work could put the bicycle to better use. Not only is this due to a difference in social status within the household the absence of ladies models and simple provisions to carry babies making it virtually impossible for women to use bicycles. Unless this situation changes, introduction of the bicycle on a large scale will have little or no success. Either men should undertake more transportation or women should (be allowed to) have full use of the bicycle. It is clear that a change in social habits will not happen over-night.

The low-cost transport concept is designed to reduce human exertion in transportation and also to meet society's needs within the means that are available. This implies:

• the transport system should be affordable. Costs to both the individual (purchase of vehicle) and so society (construction, operation and maintenance of infrastructure) should be within the means currently available (financial constraint); technical advancement (technical constraint);
• an integrated approach. Transport cannot be seen apart from socio-economic development; it's a derived need not a need on its own.
• a step-by-step implementation in which counterparts are involved as much as possible in management, construction and maintenance. A firm basis should be established for self-reliance in transport planning, management and engineering; this can only be achieved when the country receiving help is not totally dependent on the donor;
• a problem-solving approach rather than a goal-oriented one. Particularly in rural areas, physical planning is obscured by villagezation programs that put more emphasis on national socio-economic issues than on solving existing problems;
• attention to the possible role of private initiative. In bicycle production for example private enterprise might do better than NABICO; World Bank evidence suggests that the operating efficiency of parastatal organizations is poor (41).
• more attention to local and cultural constraints. There is no sense in promoting bicycle usage when the people who need them most, women, cannot use them because of social habits.

To solve existing (urgent) problems planning should be oriented to identification, formulation and appraisal of these problems and to institutions to implement partial solutions. However any planning machinery is quite useless when it does not have a firm policy framework to go by. Or, there can be no bicycle planning without establishing a bicycle policy first.

Actually, such a policy cannot exist on its own and should be incorporated into a comprehensive low-cost transport policy. Walking, cycling, use of draught animals public transport etc. should supplement each separate mode. The context of this paper does not permit discussion of policies on the modes combined but fortunately a bicycle policy hardly will have adverse effects on the interests of the other modes. To identify policy issues for the development of the bicycle transport system, an understanding of basic inputs and possible constraints is necessary to relate current problems in bicycle transport to measures to be taken. a set of four theses can be put forward;

1. Obviously no bicycle can be used when none are supplied. Equally, the current price of bicycles will hardly encourage cycling.

   Apart from its absolute price, however, one should also consider the relative price of a bicycle or the cost of cycling compared with the costs of other transport modes. Nobody will purchase a bicycle simply because he can afford to do so, on the contrary, prospective buyers expect to gain by cycling and the profits, financial or otherwise, should outweigh the costs.

2. Bicycle usage depends on the infrastructure provided.

   Technically the bicycle requires little space and it can operate on nearly anything from a fairly smooth earthen path up. But "bicycle infrastructure" should not be interpreted as just that, especially in urban areas. Several aspects have to be considered when planning the hardware to accommodate bicycles and to encourage their use Not only will a continuous bicycle route network improve safety conditions, it will also affect traveling comfort. Cyclist are reluctant to take a longer or harder route, even when it is safer to do so. A route network that links all main trip generators and attractors will strongly appeal to cyclists. Special attention should also he given to guarded bicycle parking provisions. This point, though very essential, is frequently overlooked. But then, there is no point in traveling if one cannot leave his vehicle safely at his point of destination.

3. Particularly in urban areas lack of safely is a deterrent to cycling.

   Cyclists do not like to compete with motorists for road space. In case of conflict a cyclist is by definition at a disadvantage as he lacks a protective casing. Any measure that will minimize the risk of conflict between cyclists and motorized vehicles will enhance bicycle usage. From this point of view, segregation of unequal modes is highly desirable.

4. Bicycle usage depends on its public image.

   While public attention has been focused on the private car as the ultimate means of personal transport, the bicycle has been discarded as "inferior." A boost in its public image could certainly convince more people of the bicycle's virtues. Possibilities for promotion are numerous, varying from intensive media coverage and information programs in schools to overt government support through the highly visible medium of bicycle racing.

Table 4 gives an impression of measures to be taken to enhance bicycle usage. Some measures can apply to more than one objective. Also, measures can affect each other and can even create negative effects depending on the objectives. For instance banning cyclists from heavily trafficked arterials limits the infrastructure at their disposal but at the same time reduced bicycle unsafety.

A comprehensive approach towards implementation would be ideal but hardly feasible.

On the other hand, there is a danger in an approach too narrowly focused. Though easy to implement it will be quite useless until its final stage of completion because of the importance of system continuity.

It could also seriously affect planners' attitudes: without cyclists using the fragmentary provisions that would be there, they might be reluctant about going on with bicycle planning. This would lead to a vicious circle in which bicyclists respond negatively to planners and vice versa. It requires full awareness of cyclists' needs and a set of priorities to phase implementation responsibly within the parameter of the agencies involved.

Still it should be borne in mind that emphasis is on solving problems and that too "policy making" distracts bureaucrats from getting the job done.